Managing Change Essay Example for Free

Managing Change EssayAn investor should be benefited from the construction endure the benefits include profits, business development, utilization of resources and jobs. The investors will be interested to invest in the purpose only when there atomic number 18 accurate forecasts that would provide long term benefits. The construction industry is highly uncertain, and there is a possibility of risk. As the risks becharm the profits, it is important to anticipate the assumption of risks and be calculated into a feasibility analysis and this would avoid the risks for the benefit of the investor. Firmansyah, 2006). Construction industry has many problematic issues in the United Kingdom and majority of the problems have been the direct consequences of the decisions taken by the professionals of the construction industry, and the monetary institutions. Project feasibility break down enables optimization to provide the profits. The drive home study will signify some salmagundis to be adapted for the feasibility of the construction project. Problem statementConstruction industry in the economic downswing has problems from the fiscal institutions and professionals. This constraint has reduced the profits and the constraints are largely associated with the decisions of the professionals. An effective planning requires the adoption of some changes that make the project feasible in place to get the profits. Zenith is a construction company is losing profits as the projects are not feasible due to the non-adoption of changes in decision making by the professionals and financial institutions.Present study The present study is a project feasibility study that analyses the problems associated with the construction industry and suggest the changes to be adopted by the centering of the Zenith construction company for the project to be feasible. Problems and issues of the construction industry in UK House purchase credit facilities Owning a house is becoming increa singly challenging to various sectors in the society due to the lack of funds to invest on commercial development projects. tribe size and demographicsPopulation is increasing and alike becoming older, and an important aspect is that there is no correlation between the population growth and the households. The growth of the households is disproportionate with the increasing population. Consequently there is likewise a significant change in the demographics. Density of the population United Kingdom has become one of the densely populated areas of Europe and this creates a portion surface of pressure that cannot be sustained. This pressure is mostly towards the countryside with limited natural resources.Brownfield development The Government has restricted the construction work on the green fields, and sixty portion of the construction work should be targeted on the brown fields. milieual impact on buildings There are environmental concerns arising due to the unsustainability emanating from millions of buildings which are existing and the tonic building that are built every year. The activities of the construction industry such as demolition, maintenance, repair and conversion poses an immediate and long term problems to the environment.However, this has decreased comparatively with reference to the construction industry. Brown field development The Government of UK introduced a planning insurance policy that vexs at increasing the use of Brown field points for construction. This policy promotes greening and addresses the public fears on the spreading of the cities to the low density rural lands. There are certain empty lands left by the major manufacturing industries that incurred strong losses and some areas of the city which require regeneration.The development of these areas may provide some solution at least to some extent to the demand for living accommodations in the commercial market of UK. The target set out by the government to develop mod houses was sixty percent by 2008, however, in the policy the term PPS3 means vacant lands and the lands which are in use and have potential for development. The percentage of the new homes built on the brown fields increase from 53 to 56 percent in ten years. If the refurbishments works included in the policy are considered there is an increase of 3 percent and it is not a difficult task to win.Some commentators argue that the target for brown field can be raised to 100 percent by fetching up the development in north and mid lands. Another viable alternative includes the utilizing the existing lands and buildings, as the construction of new buildings is expensive. The forecast is that there may be a still more shortage of financial resources in future. Population density A high level of density placed a heavy pressure on the country side for its natural resources. Pressure has increased on utilization of the green belt and other open areas for accommodate to meet the demands in the commercial markets.There is a decrease in the percentage of green and pleasant land, as there is a 5 percent increase in the construction of home in the rural areas. (Department for Environment and Rural Affairs. 2000) The situation can be improved if the existing buildings are apply in an efficient way. Feasibility study The feasibility studies for any project are aimed at knowing the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats in the business environment. The study is also carried out for knowing about the required resources, and the possibility of success.Feasibility study assesses the represent of project and the value attained from those cost and a better feasibility study provides a historical background of the product, accounts, operations and management, financial data, legal requirements and tax structures. (Justis,et,al, 1979). Five common factors of feasibility study Technology and system feasibility The aim of carrying out the technological feasibility study is to find out the technological capabilities of the company in terms of hard ware, software, expertise, and personnel to handle the project up to its completion.Economic feasibility The effectiveness of the new system is evaluated with economic analysis, and the expected benefits and savings are compared with the costs. The cost factors include the development costs and the operating costs and the analysis of these factors determines the deliverable benefits from the system. The economic analysis also considers a duration based study to know about the time required to get returns from the investment. sound feasibility The data processing system should comply with the local data protection act. Operational feasibilityOperation feasibility determines the capability of the system to adjudicate the problems. Schedule feasibility This measures how well reasonable the project time table is, and determines whether the deadlines are mandatory or desired. Adaptation With the problem s and issues associated with the construction of households, it is proposed to alter or even out the structure in an environment to suit the new conditions that includes alterations, extensions, improvement, and other works. The three main forms of adaptions include conversion, extension and refurbishment.In addition to this, alteration, conservation, modernization and maintenance also comprise adaptation. A lot of benefits are associated with the adaptation of the existing building instead of demolishing it and constructing a new building after clearing the site this is refurbishment. (Douglas,2002). Technical and operational feasibility A lot of factors favor refurbishment that include the complaisant factors that conserve energy and resources, and preserve the historic monuments that avoids a social resistance to this change economic factors shorter construction periods, keeping the business running, condition of the building, constraints in planning, in ample funds, necessit y to upgrade the structure, high land values, uncertainties such as long term value, loss of investment and constraints in development. (Kwayke, 1994) Economic feasibility Cost control was a problem followed by a variation and determine of tenders, however, control of the dust and noise occupied the top position of the problem issues. (Egbu,1996).For the feasibility study of a refurbishment work it is important to allot sufficient time in the early stages of the project, in such a way that the design, procurement, and construction can be based on the findings of the feasibility studies. Most of the studies suggest that there are more benefits associated with the adaptation. The benefits are increase in the speed of construction, and when the time for the feasibility study for refurbishment is considered, it is 50 percent less than the time required for a fresh new construction. Adaptation projects have fewer chances for delay particularly from weather.When the refurbishment work be gins, there will be outdoor(a) envelopes and the roof covering, and with the case of new construction time is required for demolition, removal of the resulting waste, and for the delivery of the new materials. There will be least disruption in the buildings of the neighbors, and cost to refill is reduced. Delay due to the delivery of material would be very less as most of the required materials already exist. With a complete(a) feasibility study, it is possible to control the costs with an effective forecasting.The duration of the project will be less consequently the borrowings and the loss of earnings will be less. There will no problem for the savings for the site security, and the other costs associated with the site establishment and running costs. Other important issue to be considered for the feasibility for refurbishment includes least impact on the environment. The movement of vehicles will be less, least amount of materials that go to the landfill, reduction in the use o f new materials and the energy as well as costs associated with it.In addition to this there will be preservation of the heritage as some stack argue that some of the architectural features are better than the new erections. Change programme of the company Taking the advantages of adaptation into consideration, the company can take adaptation either as refurbishment, conversion, or alteration in order to make the project feasible. Considering the requirements of the guest The surveyor should be in a position to advise the client on the viable alternatives to the new construction, and be able to present them.The total costs for a building project will include the cost of the land, cost of acquiring and preparing the site, cost of demolition and physical preparation, cost of building, professional fees for the whole project, cost of disposal, and the cost of financing. (Ferry and Brandon, 1984). Defining the problem After the details of the problem are clarified, the scope of the dec ision can be defined. The decision maker should focus the attention on the major aspects of the decision. The decision should be based on the financial situation of the client and a considerable amount of time should be allotted to this activity.Setting the objectives After knowing about the requirements of the client, it is important to consider what is hoped to achieve the decision and the aims to work. The client decision making should be directed towards specific objectives to be achieved within the allotted time and cost parameters. Determining the options This is a germinal process, and it is the process of generating the alternatives, that would satisfy the requirements of the client. The thoughts should be focused on producing viable and suitable options, and for this the client, and in the present study adaptation is the viable and suitable option.Deployment phase It is the obligation of the surveyor to develop an appropriate strategy for deployment. Developing a contingen cy plan is also required. Control phase The control is exercised upon the feedback of the information from the actual performance when compared with the predetermine plan. (Watson,2009) Feed forward phase This phase involves the critical analysis of the entire decision making activity, and this phase actually involves taking the experience obtained from the previous projects. (Cook and Slack,1984). The gravestone issues to be addressed for building adaptation Suitability of the building structure of the building condition of the building aesthetics Project brief sustainability legal issues change of use Conclusions Adaptation process can solve the problems and issues of household and commercial building of UK and it is also important to consider the environmental issues while taking a decision on the feasibility of the construction work. When decision on construction is considered it is important to take decisions on costs and environmental issues. The due consideration sho uld also be given to initial costs and future running costs.These factors should be incorporated into the decision making model. In the present study the project would be feasible when it is refurbished given the advantages associated with the adaptation rather than reconstruction. When all of the above facts are taken into consideration the project is feasible in deriving the profits and good will to the company for its sustainability. Decision making model pic References 1. Cook, S. and Slack, N. (1984) Making Management Decisions, Prentice-Hall International Inc, London, UK, ISBN 0-13-547837-5. 2. Douglas, J. 2002) Building Adaptation, Butterworth Heineman, Oxford, ISBN 0-7506-5085-0. 3. Department for Environment and Rural Affairs. (2000) Countryside Survey Accounting for reputation Assessing Habitats in the UK Countryside online, Retrieved from http//www. defra. gov. uk/wildlife-countryside/cs2000/02/01. htm Accessed February 2007. 4. Egbu, C. (1996) Characteristics and Diff iculties Associated with Refurbishment. Construction Papers No. 66, CIOB, Ascot. 5. Ferry, D. J. and Brandon, P. S. (1984) Cost Planning of Buildings, BSP Professional Books, London, UK, ISBN 0-632-02403-8 . Firmansyah . A,B et. al(2006) Risk analysis in feasibility study of building construction project case study -Pt. Perusahaan Gas Negara Indonesia. The Tenth East Asia-Pacific Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction August 3-5, 2006, Bangkok, Thailand Retrieved from http//eprints. qut. edu. au/6551/1/Trigunarsyah_EASEC_10_5. pdf 7. Department for Environment and Rural Affairs. (2000) Countryside Survey Accounting for Nature Assessing Habitats in the UK Countryside online, Retrieved from http//www. efra. gov. uk/wildlife-countryside/cs2000/02/01. htm Accessed February 2007. 8. Justis, R. T. Kreigsmann, B. (1979). The feasibility study as a tool for venture analysis. Business Journal 9. National Statistics Online. (2005) Population UK Population Grows to 59. 6 mil lion online, Retrieved from http//www. statistics. gov. uk/cci/nugget. asp? id=760 Accessed February 2007. 10. Paul Watson (2009) The key issues when choosing adaptation of an existing building over new build Journal of Building judgement (2009) 4, 215223

Tang Song Dynasty Essay Example for Free

Tang straining Dynasty EssayAfter the fall of the Han Dynasty, chinaware saw much chaos like to what happened in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. Unlike Europe though, china was lastly reunited. The Tang Dynasty was the next Chinese Dynasty to unite China for an lengthy amount of time.Tang CultureThe Tang dynasty is known as the golden age of Chinese culture. The capital of the Tang Dynasty, Chang-an, became incredibly wealthy and supported the develop of Chinese culture.Due to the popularity of the Silk Road flip routes, Chang-an became a meeting place of many different cultures and religions Christianity, Zoroastrianism, Judaism, and Islam all influenced Tang culture. Syrians, Jews, Arabs, Persians, Koreans, Tibetans, and Japanese all lived side by side with the Chinese of Chang-an. In 636, Christians from Syria were allowed to build a church and hold Christian services barely six hundred years after the induction of Christianity and less than three hundred y ears after Christianity had become the state religion of Rome. The foreigners not only brought in new religions, but new clothes, cuisine, literature, and medicine as well. The imperial court itself had several performing troupes of actors and musicians gathered from surrounding nations permanently performing at the court.Among their cultural achievements, the Tang craftsmen excelled in making porcelain and deteriorate pottery, utensils and sculptures. Tang weavers advanced their silk-weaving, making clothes much softer and more extravagant than what Europeans were wearing in their scratchy wool. Porcelain and silk were in high demand, furthering increasing the trade amidst the world and China.Poetry became a popular subject for all these new readers. The poet Li Po(701-762) became quite popular. His poetry foc go ford on simple speech that allowed the reader to immediately understand his emotions. He loved to celebrate the beauty of life and nature and wanted to share that love. QuestionsTang Dynasty1. Describe how foreign cultures were viewed in China during this time?2. During the Tang Dynasty, what goods were in high demand on the Silk Road?AFTER YOU READ BOTH ARTICLES (ONE ON THE BACK) RANK THE TOP quintet IMPORTANT ACHIEVEMENTS FROM THE TANG AND SONG DYNASTIES IN ORDER AND EXPLAIN WHYThe Song Dynasty, 960-1279 ADEventually, the Tang Dynasty fell under pressure from outside invasions and municipal rebellions. The Song Dynasty soon took control over China after the fall of the Tang.The Song EconomyUnder the Song Dynasty, China experienced an agricultural and commercial-grade revolution. Chinese farmers saw their production and wealth increasedramatically. For hundreds of years Chinese dynasties had required peasants to do free manual labor for the government each year. This was how China built the Great Wall and roads. All the time they spent working for the government, was less time they worked on their fields. The Song Dynasty eliminated forced lab or. Secondly, farmers were allowed to buy and sell soil for the first time. You see, some people are just better at jobs than different people. By letting farmers buy and sell consume, good farmers could buy land from bad farmers and produce more crops on that land. These two factors resulted in a phenomenal increase in agricultural production, and the wealth of the government and individual farmer increased significantly (though most farmers never became wealthy.)The most important economic innovation of the Song was the widespread expend of money. China was the first country to use both paper and coin money. This helped China in 2 ways. First off, peasants used to have to pay their taxes in grain. The Song Dynasty now allowed farmers to pay their taxes in money. Since they no longer needed to grow grain, this freed up weak farmers to sell their farms and go get jobs theyd be better at in cities. Anytime you make people more freedom to choose their jobs, the economy volition improve as they get jobs theyre better at. Secondly, earlier the widespread use of money, trade had to be done as bartering people exchanged goods for other goods.If a farmer wanted to buy a goat, then he and the goats owner would have to come up with some sort of trade. Ill give you half a cow Obviously, thats an awkward way to do things. So the use of money made trade MUCH easier, and the economy increased due to this The booming economy led to the growth of cities. The city of Kaifeng eventually had a population of 250,000 households. The city of Hangchow had a population of 391,000 households. Compare that to Europe during the same period Rome had an average population of about 35,000 households and London had a population of about 20,000 households. No civilization on earth was comparable to China during the Song Dynasty.Song TechnologyThese Chinese cities were bursting at the seams with merchants and trade.What were some of the goods and inventions that other cultures wanted ? Merchants along the Silk Road obviously made most of their money off the trade in porcelain and silks. During this time period, China also invented a dish up to make steel and began producing gunpowder weapons. The demand for goods and services was so great that China began an unprecedented acceleration of foreign trade. Chinese goods were traded as far out-of-door as Africa and the Middle East. China also created junks the largest ocean-going vessels in the world at the time that carried Chinese goods over the Indian Ocean all the way to Africa.China also built numerous canals. furnishs are man-made rivers that allowed shipping and transportation to new areas. The largest canal, the Grand Canal, was built to link the Yellow and Yangtze rivers and make it easier to ship sift from the north to the south, helping to prevent starvation and improving the economy.Even though they were prosperous, the Song Dynasty also fell like every other Chinese dynasty before it. This time, the y were overrun by a dangerous people to their north the Mongols.The Song Dynasty also saw the invention of the movable-type printing press. Originally, if someone wanted to make a copy of a book, they would have to write it all out by hand, which took a long time. Using movable-type however, craftsmen created blocks of letters like the type your future children will play with. When they wanted to make a book, they would arrange the letters into a copy of a page. While this took a long time, the printer could then pull off ink over the blocks and then use the blocks to make hundreds and hundreds of copies. This allowed a VAST amount of books to be printed much more cheaply, causing literacy to be more widespread.QuestionsSong Dynasty1. Explain the TWO reforms made during the Song Dynasty that improved agricultural production from farmers.2. Explain how the use of paper and coin money gave peasants more freedom.3. Explain how the use of paper and coin money increased trade.4. What we re two technological inventions made in China during this time?5. What function did junks have?6. What was the purpose of the Grand Canal?7. Why was the invention of movable type so important in Song china?

Wisdom Literature And Psalms Religion Essay

knowledge Literature And Psalms Religion EssayWithin the Hebrew Bible itself, the cognition writings is exciting, because it deals directly with life. The life-death situation is expressed positively in the image of the tree of life. cognition is a tree of life to those who lay hold of her those who hold her fast atomic number 18 c all tolded happy. (Proverbs 3) There be cinque take holds in the Hebrew Bible that deserve the title of wisdom literary works three primary (Proverbs, chore, and Ecclesiastes) and two Apocrypha (Ecclesiasticus and learning of Solomon). Within this literary productions is a straightforward lack of what angiotensin-converting enzyme would consider typically Je care or Israelite as thither is no mention of the promises of the patriarchs, the covenant and Sinai, the promise to David and so on.Wisdom literature is not confined to the Bible. Every socialization that has left a written patrimony has something correspondent to the wisdom literat ure (Socrates the unexamined life is not worth living, Plato recognize thyself, Aristotle all men by nature desire to Know). The fundamental desire for knowledge as such component partizes hu man nature. Wisdom literature includes various authors act to understand human nature, themselves, and understanding divinity and gods relation to us.Within the Bible itself, Lady Wisdom remains an elusive figure despite considerable financial aid given to sapientia hokmah, or wisdom. She is the object of a quest in the scratch line recorded petition for wisdom (Solomon in 1 Kings 3) and in the last wisdom book to be written (Wisdom of Solomon). What is striking nearly these biblical texts is that they embody not only the creed of Israel, simply also the treasury of cultures and civilizations which have got foresighted vanished. As if by special design the joins of Egypt and Mesopotamia sound again and certain features common to the cultures of the ancient Near East come to lif e in these pages which be rich in deep intuition. (Fides et Ratio 16) Wisdom is described in so m some(prenominal) ways She is fear of the Lord, instruction for deterrent example formation, human experience, the mysteries of creation, Law, a mysterious divine call, and even a spouse.Wisdom literature provides a biblical personal mannerl for understanding divine revelation apart from the historic mode (salvation history) in which it is usually cast. Wisdom literature transcends all of this and is not tied to any specific happening. The openness of Israelite wisdom to the wisdom of Israels neighbors the clearly international character of the wisdom movement, the actual borrowings from Egyptian wisdom, the controlling references to creatures and creation provides a biblical basis for the surmise that the non-Israelite tooshie also respond in saving faith to the creator, who is the God revealed in Israelite and Christian experience.If God saw fit to recognize the wisdom of the pa gan Egyptians in Proverbs, then we should be open to finding divinely inspired thoughts and wisdom in other cultures through dialogue with other Christians (Ecumenism) dialogue with other non-Christians (Inter-religious) dialogue with regards to other faiths such as Animists and Buddhists ( master Ad Gentes distributed on the Churchs respect for other faiths and the Churchs desire to bring the leaders of other religions in to the fullness of Gods revelation, purport and Gods self-revelation in Jesus Christ).Within the genre of Wisdom, there ar many definitions on the categories of the literature. Biblical Wisdom is focused on practicality. It is on how we ought to live here and now. In Job and Qoheleth we find practical intervention spilling over into the broader meaning of life and the challenges of life. Wisdom books along with the Wisdom literature of other cultures move with in an ambience of the religious, in general, but not overtaken by a religious break through sense of smell. Proper fear of the lord is an often theme in Wisdom. What you find in Wisdom often doesnt have a prerequisite connection to religion. For this reason, these books appeal to the agnostics of today. This Wisdom also appeals to agnostic writers who find something they can hold onto in Christianity or in religion in general. Something that they value and is substantive or creedal in nature. Many of the Proverbs show this side the interpretation may be Christian but keep a cross ethnical appeal as their beauty.Wisdom literature is also a good source of evangelization. For example, Paul goes in to the Areopagus (Acts 17) and the sight start to mock him before he speaks. Paul uses some well-known verses of Greek authors and poets to bridge a common understanding and that have a bridge to the pagan audience. He succeeded in bridging the culture gap on their love of knowledge and love for wisdom and learning. In an increasingly secularized culture we will encounter these Paulin e episodes more often. Wisdom literature is characterized by being called secularized as it is often devoid of any specific Christian content. The non-religious nature of Wisdom literature is not necessarily bad. A colourise of secularity doesnt hurt in the study of theology and the practice of ones own faith.With respect to Creation, Wisdom books move within a religious atmosphere but are not taken over by a religion. Creation is a work of Gods hands and therefore intrinsically good and should be stewarded calculatedly. By in good order understanding those points, we come to an understanding about ourselves as the crowning glory of creation. Humans are made in the image and likeness of God (imago dei). If forgotten, any statement on theology is gear upationless. Many denominations believe Man is fallen, sinister or corrupt. But we are inherently good and this is not oblivious to everyone. Wisdom by which many generations of cultures is elevated, affirmed, and ratified in the bo oks of Wisdom and are given the stamp of Divine Inspiration.Due to the straightforward nature of the Wisdom, we must be careful to not over analyze the literature or over analogize. Church Fathers interpret the books at the Literal and Sapiential meaning. So we too should not look too deeply in look of the obvious literal meaning as the Wisdom books wear their meaning on their sleeve.Many parts of the Wisdom books are difficult to date. Poetry is difficult to date and uses play on words, diction and some quantify antiquated terms to bring together literary elements that are difficult to pin down a specific time and place. For example in Job there is not a single identifiable historical reference in the book. We cannot locate it accurately in time. We study the vocabulary, but Job has one of the broadest ranges in the bible. All of the personalities are literary creations and cannot be link to an actual person. The place names are intentionally made obscure Job lived in the land o f Uz. A similar Wisdom text to that of Job is found in the Persian Shahnameh (The Epic of Kings) by Hakim Abol Qasem Ferdowsi Tousi. In this Persian Wisdom book, the theological emphasis regarding God being unfathomable and unchallengeable is similar to the teaching at the end of the book of Job. In Sirach the author tells us who he is in the preface and can accurately date. A similar Wisdom text to that of Sirach (and Proverbs) is found in Prologue of The Code of Hammurabi King of Babylon (from about 2250 BCE). The Psalms were written over a very broad period of time. Some were sedate in the 10th century BCE and have their literary roots in earlier times. Job, Proverbs and Psalms express the heart of humanity common things that deal have experience of and understanding in.Sophia or wisdom is the understanding of the cosmos as a whole in terms of its ultimate cause and principle. So the search for wisdom is our search for whatever it is that is first in itself that is THE cause of the things that are first for us in sense perception. In studying Wisdom we can come to see the importance of Creation in biblical thought and in Jewish/Christian faith. We can also come to see the mutuality and interrelatedness in the reality of the biblical world view. Nothing is profane in the Wisdom book. All is sacred somehow. Perhaps we will need to set our perspective in order to see and understand and perceive that inter-relatedness of all reality. In studying Wisdom today, we are seeking to look into the life and times of Jesus. Jesus frequently spoke in a manner of the Wisdom literature and we find He spoke of Solomon in his teachings of the Gospels. Studying the Wisdom literature will give us a broader appreciation of the Bible in general.The Book of Job describe how the main theme of this book is developed, how we read it in the light of Christian Revelation, and how its message may come into use in pastoral situation.The Book of Job points us to (in the Christian er a) the belief in the God revealed to us in the person Jesus Christ. This book can only be fully grasped in the light of the Cross and Resurrection of Christ. Job is all about suffering and theodicy.Job is steadfast, not patient in this reading. The scenes have been deliberately worked to set before the reader a picture of a living saint, one who has won divine approval for his lifestyle and who holds firmly to God despite cruel afflictions. In this book fiend is one of the sons of God, the members of the heavenly court who do the Lords bidding and serve as his counsel. (Murphy 36) The devil does not make us do it, but only shows us and we do the rest and the manner of which evil manifests itself in life varies. The office of Satan was responsible for putting a person to the test. A person whose job it is to prosecute or point out things persons do not want to see. A Satan is a person who God has commissioned and Devils Advocate is the actual title of Promoter of the Faith. For Anci ent Israel, there was a dark side, to God that was simply accepted. This dark side resulted from the worldview that attributed to divine agency all that happens, evil as well as good.In the first chapter of Job, his sons and daughters are taken away livestock are also taken away from Job. The Satan goes back and asks God for further trial. In the next chapter, the Satan gives sores to Job and Job sits in ashes (a gesture of mourning/sadness). Jobs married woman asks if he is still holding to his innocentness. Job still does not sin with his lips, but oscillates between despair and ardent faith. In the third chapter, Job gives his perish the day on which I was born plaintive speech of deep darkness. This is the dark darkness of the soul. This is the type of thought that goes through peoples minds before suicide. Only known to God is the moral culpability or responsibility of the action by the suicide. But there is hope for the survivors on the Via Dolorosa. When we walk in this vall ey, we know that Christ walked there before us. Authentic hope is there. The Crucifixion cannot be taken for granted. We cannot presume that all the suffering we go through is for nothing and that the person is presumptuously in heaven. The taking of a life is wrong. God still loves the departed and there is the possibility of redemption but we must then walk the dolorosa. Job is a model of Virtue and of Patience and of Friendship with God. Job 4 begins 28 chapters of a cycle of speeches by Jobs friends (Eliphaz, Bildad, and Zophar).The three friends have the outlook that associates earthly rewards with goodness and earthly punishment with evil. This is the gospel of prosperity. In Job 58-27, his friends give a fraudulent response to his state God rewards good people and punishes bad people. Job acknowledges his guilt, but no sin that merits the suffering that is being visited upon him. In Job 133, Job pushes back saying If he should kill me, I will wait for him I will retain my co nduct before him. And this shall be my salvation that no impious man can come into his presence. In Job 1315-16, Job is saying that he has a clean conscience. He dares God to smite him. He has such confidence that God will respect a clean conscience and respect that he will defend himself. The cycle of speeches by the three friends begins to wrap up and Jobs understanding of his plight begins to open up. He expresses an inchoate belief in some kind of resurrection (this is a pre-curser to NT belief). In Job 29, he has an introspective moment and describes what it was like to have favor with God. He looks to the past with rose-colored glasses with all the what if statements. Through this dubiousnessing, his spirit begins to change and moves closer to God. We must trust in God even though we may not see the reason as to wherefore we are going through a trial.In Job 2915, he says he was eyes to the blind and feet to the lame. He was so devoted to helpless people that he perceived him self in their suffering. He intimately associated himself with the others plight that they became one (charity). The Theological Virtues Faith, Hope, and Love are so called because we are imbued with these virtues (being gifts of grace) as they have God as their ultimate end.Elihus (name meaning He is my God) speeches follow with the theme arrogance with God will bring you punishment. His friends realize Job is able to rebut them, but Job has not come to any conclusion on his own. But this does not lift his suffering. In Job 381-402 and 406-4126, we see that God is always patiently listening. At the end, God speaks How dare you question My ways. God never says that Job is in fact guilty of sin and that is why he is punishing him. He is angry with Job for Jobs method of dealing with the justice, righteousness and sovereign right to deal with His goodness.Job did not give in to the facile explanations of his friends. He knew he did deserve what had happened, but he had not blasphemed, murdered, or done anything else of seriousness. He is just like most of us. When confronted with his friends trying to dowse off his suffering, he knew it was false. This is similar to the Deuteronomistic line of thinking Do wrong and be punished, do right and be blessed. Contemporary evangelical points focus on the being blessed or the book of prosperity. Until tragedy or suffering strikes and then we see these preachers drift away and become disillusioned.At the end of the speeches by God, Job realizes that he has nothing to oppose the wisdom of God. Gods wisdom is entirely other, beyond that which Job can attain. Job realizes he has no right to question Gods Will. Gods Will is always good, and beyond that silence. He confides his very being to the Lord I know my Creator lives. The mystery is not always solved. The suffering and questions may remain and this is alright.If there is no mystery left, then that person as perpetrated a fraud on you. God walks with us (by Job) in time s of suffering. In such situations, the simple answer never works. We must walk with the person. We deny the transcendence of God if we think we understand everything. We best understand God when we are in suffering with someone. To share in the suffering, we come to understand Him better. He has gone before us on this path of suffering.Describe the progression of biblical thought on women that is found in the wisdom books and in the related glide byages which we have studied. Where do these views leave us with respect to our Christian views? You may wish to recall figures such as the wife of Job, Lady Wisdom or the Ideal wife from Proverbs, and others.Perhaps the best way to sum up the book of Proverbs and possible all of Wisdom literature is the line from Deuteronomy I have set before you life and death, blessing and curse therefore choose life. (Deut. 3019) This is the choice that is laid out before us and Lady Wisdom and Lady Folly are anthropomorphic language that helps expres s the allurements of each. The Proverbs are an elaborateness of the Decalogue. It is the practical how to for everyday life and implementing the policies laid out in the Decalogue.Wisdom is often personified as feminine, perhaps in part because, in Hebrew, wisdom is a feminine noun. Grammar does not fully explain, however, Proverbs interest in repeated and varied development of the female persona. The female imagery for Lady Wisdom is also fast connected to her negative counterpart in Proverbs, that embodiment of evil referred to as the loose woman (Lady Folly).The part played by women in the Book of Proverbs is worthy of note. High praise is given to the virtuous woman in Proverbs 3110-31 and also in a number of sayings scattered throughout the book. It is evident that monogamousness is contemplated throughout as the regular married relationship (Prv 518), whatever deviations might be permitted by the law for the hardness of mens hearts.He who finds a wife finds a good thing, a nd obtains favor from the LORD, (Prv 1822) provided, of course, that she be a good wife. There is another kind of wife, whose shortcomings are denounced in righteous language A good wife is the crown of her husband, but she who brings shame is like rottenness in his bones. (Prv 124) By contrast with the woman of virtue, the sage utters stern warnings against the misguided woman, the brawling and ill-tempered woman, and above all the strange woman whose house is the way to Sheol. (Prv 727)A variation on the feministic imagery is seen again in Proverbs 120-33 and 81-21, where she appears as a prophet, calling out for followers in the most public places in the street and squares, at the busiest corner and the city gate (121-22), on the heights and at the crossroads (82). Her rhetoric offers enticement and warning. To the one who chooses her way, she offers wealth and business leader. To those who ignore her counsel, she promises mockery when panic strikes and ultimately death (126, 3 2). Lady Wisdoms vocabulary mirrors that of prophetic language. She calls, (Prv 124) is refused, stretches out her hand, (Prv 128) needs to be sought and found (Prv 817) compare 2 Chr 152, Is 69-10, 651-2 Hos 56, Am 812 C.V.Camp. The prophets use such language to describe the relationship of Israel to God while Wisdom speaks of relationship with herself.In all these moral precepts it is presumed that men and women are free agents, responsible for the way in which they exercise the power of choice. Yet there is no suggestion that it is possible to lead a moral life without having any regard to religious considerations. Disregard of God leads to moral ruin (Prv 2214), but by the fear of the Lord a man avoids evil. (Prv 166) Wisdom is to be embraced and is counterbalanced with Folly. Folly caused the Exile and shame. Wisdom will keep us out of it and on the right path.The Jewish people did not have a clearly defined afterlife. The Sadducees did not believe in the Resurrection or the id eal of Sheol (abode of the dead). Because of this, the focus on passing on to the children is overabundant of ones inheritance. Proverbs is filled with Father/Son and Mother/Son and Child language imagery. Look to those who have gone before you in this life. Imitate them and learn the lessons from them and pass them on to your children (and so forth). In literature today, books given to children have a point or lesson imparted. This is a sort of an attempt to pass on our wisdom to our children. The end of Proverbs 31 talks about the place of women in Israel. It talks about the ideal woman and gives a description of one who is familiar to the post-Exilic reader.In literature that is a little more recent, Julian of Norwich treats Christ as Mother. This is not a feminist notion. Julians tradition comes from her identification of the second person of the tierce with the traditional character of Wisdom and her understanding of the identity between Mother Church and the Mystical Body of Christ. For Julian, Christ is the Church, and the Church is the Mother. Christ is Wisdom, and Wisdom is the feminine. Julian never uses anything but masculine pronouns in referring to Christ. She also never characterizes Christ as mother, but describes motherhood as preexisting in Christ. Earthly motherhood, she says is an fictive and reflection of Christ. It is not a characteristic of femininity that Christ shares, but a characteristic of Christ that women share. Wisdom has always been personified as feminine and in some instances to such a degree that Wisdom is characterized as the feminine aspect of God.Lady Wisdom is a personification of a mental power that claims to have preceded creation and to exist in a daughter-like relationship to God. She transcends the mundane reality and human minds. The wisdom that Lady Wisdom signifies corresponds to the teachings of human sages.In Proverbs, the voice of Wisdom and the voice of the teacher do not blend. The teacher, in this case a sire, offers wise and lifesaving teachings to his son. The teacher is wise, but wisdom itself transcends any human wisdom. creation personified as a woman, she is a heavenly creature, residing in angelic proximity to God. (John Bright, History of Israel). At the same time, she is traversing the streets and speaking to all. This image tells us that the various proverbs of the father and of Israels sages speak with the same voice that of Wisdoms own voice. The collection of wisdom literature tells us that in the observations of the sages of ancient Israel and of the wisdom taught in the home both rejoinder transcendent wisdom.

The Discourse And Discourse Analysis

The Discourse And Discourse AnalysisThe chapter elaborates the theoretical frameworks used in the present domain of a function of force. It covers the elaboration of concourse media, idolize and the theories of authority. This chapter besides explains Discourse Analysis, the fantasy of Critical Discourse Analysis, van Leeuwens framework- sermon as a recontextualization of tender practice which is followed by train Leeuwens notion of holding complaisant actors and implement (2008) and Kress and Van Leeuwens possibility on Reading Image (2006).2.1 Mass MediaMass media dedicate become an important begin of human life. People can not imagine how they would live without media, such as television, newspaper, magazine, or internet. Mass media today cover global phenomenon such as the programs on health risks, political elections, royal weddings, armed conflict, financial crises, and natural or man-made disaster.However, mass media ar not free from ideology (ibid). whateve r reality (this may include awe) showed in mass media possibly adopts the perspective of dominant groups or the owner of mass media (Van Dijk, 1995). Thus, the following will discuss the concept of fear and mass media with CDA as the tools of compendium to unearth the ideology in particular online news (Kompas.com Detik.com). Here, CDA is very useful to discover hidden messages behind news as part of media discussion (Van Dijk, 1995). The anatomical structure of fear in news could also be dieed by employing CDA as the tool of depth psychology. To start the investigation of fear in the Ind matchlesssia online news, the concept of fear and mass media is discussed in the following section.2.2 Mass Media and FearMass media also have potential to arouse and shape emotions topically as well as globally (Doveling, Scheve, Konjin, 2010).The exemplifications be falling in love with one of the characters in a film, shedding tears in a dramatic event, shouting out loud to soccer playe r who fails to score, and many more.Those ensamples about circumstantial characters and events argon exclusively known via the media, although the audiences or the readers of the media have never met the characters or experienced the events yet. However, the audiences ar moved by these examples emotionally. It is the reason why mass media have the potential to play with emotions while in fact naught real needs to be going on. So, mass media argon technically construed means to convey messages, yet they do not have emotions themselves (Doveling, Scheve, Konjin, 2010).Fear as noun is defined as an unpleasant often strong emotion caused by anticipation or awargonness of danger an instance of this emotion a declare marked by this emotion anxious concern profound reverence and awe especially toward God and reason for alarm (Merriam Webster Online dictionary, 2012). Meanwhile, fear can also be regarded as a verb (transitive and intransitive). Merriam Webster Dictionary defines fea r as followTransitive verbarchaic frightenarchaic to feel fear in (oneself)to have a reverential awe of to be afraid of expect with alarm Intransitive verbto be afraid or apprehensive Fear pervades in mass media because mass media play a large routine in shaping public agendas by influencing what bulk think about (Shaw and McCombs 1977 cited from Altheide et all, 1999). dissertate of fear. It is defined as the pervasive communication, symbolic awareness and expectation that danger and risk are the central feature of the effective environment (Altheide et all, 1999)Altheide et all (1999) elaborate that there are three objects to tending discovering fear in mass media. The objects are frame, theme, and preaching.The third object to pick up fear in mass media is through discourse. The investigation of construction fear in discourse is the focus in this take. Thus, the theory of deliveration which is a departing point to explain discourse and CDA is described in the next part .2.3. delegacyRepresentation as uncountable noun is the way that someone or something is shown or described while as a countable noun while as countable noun, representation is tacit as a sign, picture, or model of something (Cambridge Advance Learners dictionary 3rd Edition). The same view is also proposed by Longman Advanced America Dictionary which describes representation (countable or uncountable noun) as a way of showing or describing something in art, literature, newspaper, television, etc.Understanding representation is important since this theory can reveal how fear is be in the online news media. Stuart Halls theory of representation is one of the prominent theories of representation. Hall does not define representation as just a way something described or shown but he goes deeper by defining representation as the production of core through address (Hall. 1997 p.1). He argues that language is able to construct centre since it operates in operates as representational system (Hall, 1997 p.1). In representational system (language), signs are used to symbolize or represent objects, people, or events in real world (Hall, 1997). Moreover, signs can also represent imaginary, fantasy or abstract things (Hall, 1997 p.17), such as the concept of fear.Furthermore, there are two general models of representation Ferdinand De Saussures and Michael Foucaults approaches to representation. Saussures model is semiotic model that can be defined as the link between the forms of expression used by language (signifier) and the psychical concept with them (signified) (Hall, 1997).The second model is Foucaults model to representation. In contrast with Saussures model, Foucault (in Hall 1997 p.44) sees discourse as the system of representation (not language). He argues that meaning and meaningful practices are constructed in discourse, so it implies that nothing meaningful outside discourse (Foucault in Hall, 1997 p.44). Foucault is, then, defined discourse as a way o f representing the companionship about a particular topic at a particular historical monument. From this exposition, it can be inferred that Foucault model of representation is historically and context specific where certain power and ideology are involved in producing discourse and knowledge.So far, the discussion of representation has elaborated how meaning is constructed. Two views are raised meaning is constructed in Language (Saussures model of representation) or Discourse (Foucaults model of representation). This study, then, employs Foucaults model of representation (in Hall, 1997) since this model is more relevant to the tool of synopsis of the study which is Critical Discourse Analysis (Van Leeuwens Framework, 2008). The model is chosen since the model of representation is more attached to the concept of knowledge, power, and ideology which are also the primary(prenominal) notions of CDA. In order to enrich the understanding of discourse and critical discourses analysi s, the elaboration of these concepts is explained in the following section.2.4. Discourse and Discourse AnalysisDiscourse often means as an extended stretch of connected speech or writing a text (Van Leeuwen in Wodak and Meyer, 2009). However, some scholars develop a more profound definition of discourse one of them is Foucault who defines discourses as neighborlyly constructed way of knowing some aspect of reality which can be drawn upon when that aspect of reality has to be delineate. (Foucault, 1977 cited in Wodak and Meyer, 2009).From different point of view, Fairclough defines discourse as the representation of the world (Fairclough, 2003124). It involves the representation of sufficees, relations and structures of the material worlds, the mental world of thought, feelings, beliefs, and the genial world (Fairclough, 2003124). He also distinguished discourse from text since discourse is used to refer to the whole process of neighborly interaction while text is only the en d product of that process (Fairclough, 198924).These two scholars definitions of discourse give implication that discourse is not a just mere connected speech or writing. The notion of discourse raises the concept of reality, knowledge and power (Foucalt 1977 in Wodak and Meyer 2009) and the concept of world representation and brotherly interaction (Fairclough 1989 and 2003).The discussion of discourse raises the question of how discourse is analyzed. Dicourse Analysis is, then, the process of analysis which aims to reveal the descent between text and the elements of social practice in the society (Paltridge, 20062). Zellig Harris is first scholar who introduced the term Discourse Analysis in 1952. He defines Discourse Analysis as a way of analyzing connected speech and writing (Paltridge, 20062). Harriss study deals with the examination of language beyond the level of decry and the investigation of relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic behavior.Afterward, the develo pment of Discourse Analysis influences some areas of applied language study. One of these areas is Critical Discourse Analysis (abbreviated as CDA). CDA was developed based on the fact that the set which underlie texts are often hidden (Paltridge, 2006). The critical approach to Discourse Analysis will help reveal some of these hidden values. Cor reacting to this, Fairclough (1992) also states that CDA focuses on how a discourse is produced in relation to power and ideology as well as the effects of the discourse on social identities, relations, knowledge and beliefs. on that pointfore, this study is geared toward investigating the construction of fear in online news media from discourse perspective (Altheide, 1999). The study is aim to reveal what the construction of fear signifies. These significations may lead to the relation of power, hidden values and ideology in the construction of fear. These significations are also the main notions of CDA. Thus, the more detailed explanatio n of CDA is explained in the following section.2.5. Critical Discourse AnalysisPaltridge (2006) elaborates Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) as the examination of the use of discourse in relation to its socio-cultural phenomena. It examines the way language is used in the discourse and social and cultural situation where it occurs. Distinctively, Van Dijk explains that CDA is a type of discourse analysis which studies the way social power abuse, dominance and inequality are enacted, reproduced and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context. (200885). Thus, it can be inferred that one of main purposes of CDA is to try to understand, demonstrate, and resist social inequality.Furthermore, Fairclough and Wodak elucidate eight main principles of CDA. First, CDA addresses social problems by observing the linguistic forms. The concept of power relations are negotiated and performed through discourse is the second principle. The next one is that discourse represents socie ty and culture. Ideologies are produced and reflected in the use of discourse is the fourth principle. The fifth one regards discourse as historical which means that a discourse cannot be separated from discourses in front it. The concept of CDA mediates text and society is the sixth principle. Next Principle, CDA is interpretative and explanatory. dying principle, discourse is a form of social action (Fairclough and Wodak, 1997, cited in Van Dijk, 200886).These eight main principles of CDA construct the basis for CDAs aim which is to gain a unattackable understanding of how language functions in constituting or transferring knowledge or in exercising power (Wodak and Meyer, 2009). In order to achieve this understanding, CDA requires an interdisciplinary approach. Thus, CDA is not assay to provide one specific theory. Researches in CDA are varied and come from different theoretical backgrounds. They are also concerned with different data as well as different methodologies.Theo Van Leeuwen is one of the CDA researchers who contributes his approach to CDA. His framework of discourse as the recontextualization of social practice is greatly affected by four important notions from Bernstein, Foucault, Halliday, and Martin (Van Leeuwen, 2008).Thus, the present study employs Van Leeuwens framework of discourse as the recontextualization of social practice (2008) as the main tool of analysis. This study focuses on how social actors and social actions are delineate in the construction of fear. Van Leeuwens framework of CDA is also used to reveal what the construction of fear signifies (the power relation, hidden values and ideologies). The elaboration of Van Leeuwens approach to CDA is, then, presented in the next section.2.6. Van Leeuwens Framework Discourse as the Recontextualization of Social PracticeVan Leeuwen (2008) explains discourse as outlines for the translation of reality. His framework on discourse presents methods for reconstructing these outlines th rough text analysis. It is based on four important notions from four theorists. It is built on Bernsteins concept of recontextualization, Hallidays theory of Transitivity, Foucaults theory of discourse, and Martins theory of activity sequences. (Van Leeuwen, 2008).First, the frameworks based on Bernstein concept of representation (1996). Bernstein defines recontextualization as one of the three fields of pedagogic devices (Bernstein, 1996, cited in Van Leeuwen 2008). It lies between the field of knowledge production and reproduction. The field production of new knowledge takes inject in higher fostering institutions. The recontextualization of knowledge takes place in institutions which interpret education policies into curriculum. Furthermore, the reproduction of knowledge mostly takes place in schools. Bernstein argues that recontextualization regulates rule for delocating a discourse, for relocating it, for refocusing it. (cited in Van Leeuwen, 2008), Thus, it can be inferred t hat from Bernsteins perpective, recontextualization is shifted from its original position of production to another position where it is changed as it is related to other discourses.However, Van Leeuwen employs this concept in a more general sense. He also associates it to the theory of discourse constructed by Foucault. In Foucaults sense, discourse is a socially constructed knowledge of some social practices (Foucault, 1977, cited in Van Leeuwen, 20086). At this point, discourses are seen as the resource of representing social practices in text. It implies that texts can be used to reconstruct discourses.Subsequently, Van Leeuwens framework is also based on Martins concepts of the field of discourse, using lexical cohesion analysis to construct activity sequences-sequences of represented activity (Cited in Van Leeuwen, 20085). In building his framework, Van Leeuwen is motivated by the work of Martin concerning the represented activities, components, setting, etc. Although Martins example is in the form of procedural text, Van Leeuwen argues that all texts should be interpreted as representation of social practices that consist of series of represented activities (van Leeuwen, 2008).2.7. Representing Social ActorsTheo Van Leeuwen (2008) has built an analysis framework regarding the representations of social actors in a text. The following section explains these categories further.2.7.1. Inclusion and ExclusionIn a text, not all of the social actors are presented directly for the readers to see sometimes the readers have to infer them in one or two places, and sometimes the social actors are not at all present in the text. Whenever the social actors are present in a text, it is called inclusion and whenever they are absent, it is called exclusion (Van Leeuwen , 2008).Excluded social actors can either be backgrounded or suppressed. If they are backgrounded, it means they can still be referred to somewhere in the text. However if the social actors are suppressed , it means they are not mentioned at all in the text.If the social actors are included in the text, we shall then see their role allocation, whether they are playing an active or passive role, whether they are presented generically or specifically, presented as an individual or as belong in a group, presented as unspecified or specified, referred to by name or category, referred to personally or impersonally, or whether they appear in more than one social practice at the same time (Van Leeuwen , 2008).Therefore, one way to reveal the construction of fear is to see how actors are represented in the discourse. It is important to reveal the representation of social actors since actors play vital role in creating meaning (fear) (Hall 1997, Altheide 1997, Bell, 2003). The exclusion and inclusion of the social actors in the discourse is able to reveal the relation of power and hidden values and ideology in the construction of fear in online news.The following figure is the network of repr esenting social actor.NominationInclusionionionExclusion ionionSupressionBackgrounding ionionActivation ionionPassivationionionParticipationionionCircumstatialization ionionPossesivationImpersonalization ionionPersonalization ionionDeterminationIndeterminationGenericizationSpecificizationAbstractionObjectivationIndividualizationAssimilation sleeperDisassociationDifferentiationIndifferentiationCategorizationhSingle DeterminationOverdeterminationCollectivizationAggregationFunctionalizationIdentificationAppraisementFormalizationInformalizationTitulationDetitulationSemiformalizationInversionSymbolizationConnotationDistillationClassificationRel. IdenPhysical Iden.Honorification standoffAnachronimDeviation take in 1 Social Actor Network (Van Leeuwen, 200852)2.7.2. Role AllocationRole Allocation in Van Leeuwens Framework of representing social actors is the role give to the actor to play in the representation (Van Leeuwen, 2008). The first role allocation is that social actors in a text ca n either be activated or passivated. Activation and passivation of the social actors can be accomplished through participation, circumstantialisation and possessivation. When social actors participate in a given activity, participation occurs. While, Circumstantialisation happens when social actors are put within the circumstance. Furthermore, Possessivation happens when social actors become the possession of others (Van Leeuwen 2008).When social actors are passivated, they can either be subjected or beneficialised. Subjected social actors are case-hardened as objects in the representation, while beneficialised social actors are the ones who benefits, either positively or negatively, from the action (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.3. Genericisation and SpecificationTalking about genericisation and specification means public lecture about whether the social actors are represented as classes, or as specific individuals which can be identified.Genericisation can be accomplished through th e plural form without article, the singular with the definite article, or mass nouns (a group of participants). Meanwhile specification can be realized through specific nouns or using numerative before the noun. In addition, mass nouns can also signify specification if the tense is not present tense (Van Leeuwen , 2008)2.7.4. Assimilation and IndividualisationThe third distinction of role allocation is assimilation and individualization. This role allocation concern about whether the social actors are represented as groups or individuals. The difference lies in the singular and plural form of the social actors. Genericisation and specification can represent social actors either in singular or plural form. Meanwhile, assimilation represents social actors as groups, represents them in plural form. Individualization, The reference of social actors as individuals is called Individualization. Individulaized social actors al ways be represented them in singular form.Furthermore, assimila tion consists of two types aggregation and collectivization. Aggregation is understood as quantifying groups of participants and treats them as statistics, while collectivization does not. Aggregation is also realized by the presence of definite or indefinite quantifiers which either functions as the numerative or as the head of nominal group. Meanwhile, Collectivization can be realized by a mass noun or a noun denoting a group of people (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.5. Association and DissociationA further distinction of the social actor is association and disassociation. It deals when social actors or a group of social actors represented in a text as forming a group, however the group is never labeled. Association can be realized through parataxis, circumstance of accompaniment, possessive pronouns and possessive attributive clauses with verbs such as have and belong (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.6. Indetermination and DifferentiationThe notion of indetermination and differentiation deals with whether or not social actors are represented as unspecified or specified. Indetermination, which anonymizes social actors, can be realized through indefinite pronouns and generalized exophoric reference, while differentiation can be realized through specific adjectives (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.7. Nomination and CategorizationNomination occurs when social actors are represented based on their unique identities, while categorization occurs when they are represented based on their identities and functions which they share with others.Nomination is generally realized by proper noun, in the form of formal (surname only, with or without honorifics), semiformal (given name and surname) or informal (given name only) (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.8. Functionalization and IdentificationWhen social actors are categorized, they can either be represented by means of functionalization or identification. Functionalization occurs when social actors are represented based on what they do or blatantly put, what they function as, while identification occurs when social actors are represented based on what they are. (Van Leeuwen , 2008).Functionalization is usually realized in one of the following ways first by a noun formed from verb by adding suffixes, such as -er in interviewer second by a noun denoting a place or tool well-nigh associated with an activity through suffixes, such as -ist in violist and third by compounding nouns denoting places or tools closely related with an activity and highly generalized categorizations, such as compounding swords and man into swordsman.In addition, identification has three types, to wit classification, relational identification and bodily identification. Classification happens when social actors are represented based on their class, age, gender, race, religion, etc.Relational identification happens when social actors are represented based on their relationship or kinship with others. It can be realized by possessive pronoun, postmodifyin g phrase, or genitive. Physical identification happens when social actors are represented based on their physical characteristics (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.9. Impersonalisation and PersonalisationImpersonalisation and personalization deal with whether social actors are represented as human beings or not. All of the aforementioned categories of social actors representation fall into personalization, because all of them represent social actors as having the quality of human beings. On the other hand,impersonalisation does not represent social actors as having the quality of human beings.Moreover, impersonalisation is divided into two types, namely abstraction and objectivation. Abstraction occurs when social actors are represented by means of quality assign to them, and objectivation occurs when social actors are represented by a place or thing closely related either with the person or with the action in which they are engaged. If they are represented by a place, it is called spatializ ation if they are represented by their utterance, what they say or whatthey write, it is called utterance autonomization if they are represented by the instrument or tool they use for action, it is called instrumentialization and if they are represented by a part of their body, it is called somatization.In addition, Leeuwen noted that impersonalisation can background the identity and/or role of social actors, can lend impersonal authority or force to an activity or quality of a social actor, and can add positive or negative connotations to an activity or utterance of a social actor. Impersonalizing social actors takes the audiences focus or attention away from the social actors themselves, emphasizing on the abstract concept, quality or object that is assigned to them (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7.10. OverdeterminationOverdetermination occurs when social actors are represented as participating, at the same time, in more than one social practice. It is one of the ways in which texts can l egitimize practices. There are four kinds of overdetermination, namely inversion, symbolization, connotation and distillation (Van Leeuwen , 2008).Inversion happens when social actors are connected to two practices which are each others opposite. A well-known example for this, as mentioned by Leeuwen as well, is The Flintstones. The Flintstones family is depicted as people from pre-historic era, as seen from their clothes that are made of animals hides and their house that is made from rocks and stones, yet they do activities that are common in modern era, like watching television, playing bowling and hanging out in a night club.Symbolization happens when fictional social actors stand for actors in non-fictional social practices. Distillation is the combination of generalization and abstraction. It connects social actors to several social practices by abstracting the same feature from social actors involved in these several practices (Van Leeuwen , 2008).This present study utilizes this role allocation in the chosen online news article as the main analysis of the social actor. As mentioned before, the analysis of role allocation aims to reveal how representations of the social actors are allocated in the discourse. This allocation, then, reveals the power relation, hidden values and ideologies in representing social actors in the discourse of fear.2.8. Representing Social live up toThe main question that encourages Van Leeuwen in constructing the social action network is that What are the ways in which social action can be represented in English discourse? (20083). He believes that the representational choices of actions in the discourse contain meanings that could help to understand the whole discourse. The next section presents the main ways in which social action can be transformed in a discourse (Van Leeuwen , 2008).2.7 Van Leeuwens Social Action NetworkThis social action network presents the ways in which actions and reactions can be represented in disco urse. Figure 1 shows the social action network that is developed by Van Leeuwen.SocialActionReactionActionActivationDeactivationAgentializationDeagentializationAbstractionConcretizationUnspecifiedCognitiveAffectivePerceptiveMaterialTransactiveNontransactiveInteractiveInstrumental semioticBehavioralNonbehavioralSingle DeterminationOverdeterminationForm specificationTopic specificationRenditionQuotationObjectivationDescriptivizationGeneralizationDistillationEventuationExistentializationNaturalizationSymbolizationInversionFIGURE 2. The Social Action Network The Representation of Actions and Reactions (Van Leeuwen, 200873)2.9.1 ReactionsReactions is understood as the emotions and attitudes toward belong to these actions of the social actors (Van Leeuwen, 2008). Typically, a discourse presents the social actions along with the reactions following them. The way to say the reactions from actions grammatically is by using the criteria in Hallidays transitivity theory of mental processes.Ac cording to Van Leeuwen (2008), there are four conditions of mental processes which distinct them from the processes that realizing actions (such as, material, behavioral, or verbal processes).Van Leeuwens argument in mental process is based on Hallidays theory of transitivity (967-1968, 1985). He argues that the mental processes cannot be probed by a do question. Second, mental processes use the simple present form while material, behavioral, and verbal processes take the progressive present form. Third, the participant of a mental process, the senser, mustiness be a human or is treated as competent of human mental processes. Conclusively, the object of the mental processes can be realized by a clause as well as by a nominal group. (Van Leeuwen, 2008These four criteria, however in Van Leeuwens view, are not eternally fully adequate to identify the actions and reactions in the actual text (2008). It is because the identification of actions and reactions is bounded by the grammar of the clause and fails to provide recognition criteria for actions and reactions in the text that use other linguistic level such as nominal group. Another problem is that many reactions are not represented dynamically by mental process clause, for instance, they feared . They can also be represented statically by descriptive clause such as they were afraid. (Van Leeuwen, 200857).Halliday solves those problems through his theory of grammatical metaphor (1985). It covers the whim that the concept of mental process is realized literally when it is realized by the grammatical category of mental process it is realized metaphorically when it is realized in other ways. For examples, it is realized by a static descriptive clause or by elements of nominal group. Those two ways of representing reactions-metaphorically or literally-suggest that there are different metaphors available for representing the reactions.Reactions can be formulated in a number of ways. They can be unspecified throug h verbs like react and respond denoting a reaction directly. They can also be specified they are represented as particular types of reactions. In accordance to these, Halliday (cited in Eggins, 2004) differentiates three types of reactions cognitive (verbs of thinking, knowing, understanding, etc.) affective (verbs of liking, fearing, etc.), and perceptive (verbs of seeing, hearing, perceiving, etc.).2.9.2 Mat

Major studies of conformity

Major studies of conformityThis essay will describe and evaluate several(prenominal) major studies of conformity.Conformity has been defined in number of ways. Crutchfield (1955), defined conformity as yielding to assemblage pressure. Mann 1969 agrees with Crutchfield, and Mann (1969), argues that it may take different forms and be based on motives other than group pressure. (Gross p 479)Conformity is a change in belief or behaviour in response to objective or imagined group pressure where in that location is no direct request to comply with the rest of the group norm Zimbardo and Leippe (1991). A lot of inquiry has been do to try and understand the military posts individuals need to be in to conform and the f spotors affecting conformity. However there are various cultural and methodological considerations that affect the arrangement of conformity look.The first write up would be Jenness in 1932. Jenness was the first person to study conformity. Jenness asked students to e stimate the number of beans in a bottle. Taking individuals estimates first consequently placed the individuals into groups and asked them to discuss their estimates. Once the findings had been calculated he found that the students in particular groups would conform to a group average. According to Jenness in a situation where the resolving power was unknown they listened to their peers and would in his view conform.His research was criticised by Sherif (1935) because the investigate was not taken out in ecologically valid circumstances. The students were not in surroundings that were familiar to them thus behaving differently. Critics aim argued that the students may have conformed in order to make the results easier for the psychologist. This demonst range informational mixer influence and is explained in a classic study by Sheriff. Methodologically the first major problem encountered when testing conformity was the ambiguity of the situations the players were placed in. This was highlighted by Mustafer Sherif (1935) when he used the auto-kinetic transaction to test conformity. The Auto-kinetic effect is a perceptual illusion where participants perceive light moving when in fact it is stationary. Participants were placed in a darkened room in which they could wait on a light that was stationary. They were asked to record how far the light moved and on their own they settled on individual estimates however when the participants were put in a room together with other participants they were encouraged to shout out their estimates. Sherif found that they started with different answers but past all came to agree on the same answer. then(prenominal) after they split up the group into individuals again Sherif found that they gave the answer they had settled on with the group. In Sherifs research into conformity (1935), the draw was to see if large number conform to a group norm. The results of the test showed that individual responses differed to those f rom the group response. The post-experimental interviews said that the participants denied being influenced, they struggled to get the correct answers, and they never in truth felt part of the group. The conclusions wasted from this said that the participants conformed towards the group norm because they were uncertain about their own individual responses. Sherif then argued that his results showed conformity however there was a problem with the methodological analysis. This conformity research was criticised to be artificial and lacking ecological validity. Also, because the task was thought to be ambiguous and that there were no real answers, the participants were more likely to conform. As the answer was very ambiguous and there wasnt an obvious answer it was argued that participants are more likely to conform as they are never completely certain of their answer. This methodology therefore affects Sherifs interpretation of conformity as it is not very reliableSolomon Asch (195 1) was the psychologist that challenged Sherifs methodological and in 1951 he created The Asch Paradigm where he tested conformity rates to very unambiguous situations. In his experiment there was one participant and seven to nine other confederates who knew about the experiment. The group was asked to identify lengths of vertical lines and assemble up a distributen vertical line to one of three in another display. Each confederate gave their answer and the participant sat in the next-to-last seat. On some questions all the confederates would give the wrong answer and Asch observed the conformity rate of the participant agreeing with the wrong answer even though the answer was very obvious. Asch found that 32% of the trials, the naive subject conformed to answer given by the rest of the group, and 72% of naive subjects conformed at least once. 13 out of 50 naive participants never conformed. When he interviewed the naive participants afterward, he found that conformity existed on three levels agony of judgement, aberration of perception and distortion of action. Those who experienced distortion of judgement conformed because they trusted the groups judgement over their own. Those that experienced distortion of action knew that they were right, but changed conformed to avoid ridicule from the rest of the group. Finally, those who experienced distortion of perception actually believed that they saw the groups choice as matching the line on the card. The aim of the experiment was still to see if hatful would conform towards the group norm. The results showed that the individuals conformed to the group norm, even if the answers were wrong. The naive participant explained their reasons for conforming to be because they didnt want to spoil the experiment, look stupid, their eyes must have been deceiving them, and because they felt that the group was in all probability right. This experiment also told us that the influence from three or more stooges gave more o f a reason to conform than if there was one stooge. The conclusions for this study were that the nation conformed for public compliance rather than public acceptance. Also it seemed like volume with embarrassed self esteem were more likely to conform. The methodology in this experiment was a lot more accurate then Sherifs experiment as the answers are very unambiguous and if the participants were on their own or first then they would almost certainly have given the right answer. The results from this experiment are therefore can be a better explanation of conformity than Sherif however there are other methodological problems which make this experiment fairly inaccurate in the interpretation of conformity. However there are also ethical issues about the experiment.The main criticisms for this experiment was that it was artificial, time-consuming, time-dependant and unethical.The experiment lacks ecological validity due to a lack of both experimental and mundane realism. It lacks experimental realism as some participants worked out what the experiment was or at least thought the experimenter wanted them to answer the same as the others and therefore the conformity rates could be unreliable. It also lacks mundane realism as the situation does not reflect a real life situation and therefore people may act differently in real life and maybe the conformity rate would be lower.Crutchfield (1954) criticized Asch that the type of experiment undertaken by Asch is very time consuming, as entirely one person can be tested at a time. Richard Crutchfield decided to change the experimental method so that several people, usually five, could be tested simultaneously. The same kind of problem as Asch used, was used. Each participant sat in a booth with an array of lights and switches in front of them. They were told to give their answers and each were told that they were last to guess and the others guesses were indicated by the lights on the panel. However each participan t was actually given the same display, which on about half the trials was actually incorrect. Crutchfield aimed to find out whether people conformed to unambiguous tasks when the pressure from others was more imagined than real. Crutchfield found that 37% conformed all of the time but 46% some of the time. The results found were actually similar to Aschs but had a lower conformity rate. This concluded that there is conformity to imagined pressure. The experiment was criticised to have specific people used that were perhaps more conforming. Also it lacked external validity. The time the experiment was done in (1950s) was generally a more conforming time, so that could have been one of the reasons why the people conformed more. This experiment was also thought to be unethical as the participant were lied to and could have been embarrassed.Stanley Milgram (1963) conducted an experiment on obedience that highlighted the persuasive power of bureau in favorable psychology for the first time. His experiment exceeded all expectation and led to greater awareness of authority and how much power it credited the perpetrator of it. Participants were made to give increasing electric shocks to someone (who was an actor pretending to be receiving the shocks through wires) when the person gave the wrong answer to a question. Many of the participants continue to the highest voltage (450V). There were many reasons why participants obeyed, such as the fact that the experiment was in a professional setting (Yale University). The experimenter was an authority figure and so was trusted and the subjects were told that anything that went wrong would not be their responsibility. It was also because the participants could not see the victim which made it seem less real to them or it could have been because the participant had taken on a role so they felt that they were someone else.Milgrams work has been criticised both on ethical and methodological grounds. Baumrind (1964) believed that Milgram showed insufficient respect for his participants, there were insufficient steps taken to protect them, and his processs could have long term effects on the participants. Orne and Holland (1968) argued that the participants did not believe they were giving electric shocks and they were just vie along with their role in the study.A famous example showing conformity was the experiment Zimbardo et al., (1973) carried out the prison simulation experiment at Stanford University. The aim of the experiment was to see the psychological effects of making an average person into a prisoner or guard. After less than 36 hours one of the prisoners had to be released from the experiment due to severe depression. Others who were acting as prisoners also showed signs of anxiety and depression. According to Zimbardo, these results showed how easily people could adapt to a new role in a new situation and behave out of character to fit that role. He quoted Note that anyone ever doubted the horrors of prison, but rather it had been assumed that it was the predispositions of the guards (sadistic) and the prisoners (sociapathic) that made prisons darkness places. Our study holds constant and positive the dispositional metamorphosenative and reveals the power of social, institutionalised forces to make good men engage in evil deeds. (Gross p 500) There have been many criticisms levelled at his study, (Savin 1973) argues that the prisoners did not give fully informed consent they didnt really know what was going to happen to them. They were humiliated and dehumanised by the procedure when reaching the prison (strip searched and deloused). Savin also argued the point the ends did not justify the means. The study had become too real and should never have been carried out.Perrin and Spencer (1980) tried to ring Aschs study in England in the late 1970s. They found very little evidence of conformity, leading them to conclude that Aschs effect was a child of its time. Howeve r the low levels of conformity found in Perrin and Spencers study may have occurred because they used engineering students who had been given training in the importance of accurate measurement and therefore had more confidence in their own opinions.Bond and Smith (1996) also considered changes into conformity over time based on studies carried out in the fall in States. They conclude as follows Level of conformity in general had steadily declined since Aschs studies in the early 1950 (Bond Smith p 124). The conformity rate has been found to alter across time within a culture, though overall trends are far from clear. There is also variation between cultures. These differences are related to social norms.As a conclusion, it is fair to say that people conform for many reasons, all that have is one main aim and that is to fit in with the group. Mainly, people want to be accepted in their society and because they have the need for certainty. People who are within any society or cultur e and its beliefs, with regards of what is evaluate and acceptable can be forced in certain situations to behave in anti-social ways. As their behaviour becomes adaptive to meet the needs of normative social influence without doing so could lead them to receiving social and/or cultural rejection. The researches briefly tells us how conformity works, however do psychologists tend to bother what happens after the research has been carried out on the naive participant? Some of the naive participant reported feeling quite stressed on the critical trials, which had a psychological harm on them. Do psychologists use deception to have their researches carried out? or should I say, Are they justified?Above all, the researches have further broadened my acquaintance on how individuals react in certain situation and has taking me one-step closer in understanding the world.REFERENCESAsch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, pp. 31-35.Banyard, P, Grayson, A. (2000 ) Introducing Psychological Research lxx Studies that Shape Psychology, 2nd Edition. London Macmillan.Bond, R, Smith, P. (1996) Culture and conformity A meta-analysis of studies using Aschs (1952b, 1956) line judgment task. Psychological Bulletin, 119, 111-137.GROSS, R. (1996) The Science Of Mind And Behaviour, 3rd Edition. London Hodder and Stoughton.GROSS, R. (1999) key out Studies in Psychology, 3rd Edition. London Hodder and Stoughton.Milgram, S. (1983) Obedience to Authority An Experimental View. New York harpist/Collins.Moscovici, S, Faucheux, C. (1972) Social influence, conformity bias and the study of active minorities. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental psychology, (pp. 149 202). New York Academic Press.Myers, G. (2005) Social Psychology, 8th Edition. London McGraw-Hill.Savin, H.B (1973) Professors and Psychological Researchers Conflicting Values In Conflicting Rolls. Sherif, M. (1936) The Psychology of Social Norms. New York Harper Collins.

Beowulf and Modern United States Essay -- Culture Compare Contrast Ess

Beowulf and Modern United StatesMany people who read the poem Beowulf would probably find it voiceless to find similarities between the poem and life in modern America. How could one compare an ancient Anglo-Saxon culture with the sophisticated world that we are invigoration in today? But, if we look closely, we may be able to pinpoint some parallel between the two societies. This essay will discuss the topics of warrior life, the lamentable guy, and social similarities. One might wonder how a warrior culture might be similar to our own? But if we consider American culture, we are actually still very war-like. We have a strong military system built to protect our country and the people that make it up. We are also know for going to the aid of other countries that arent able to defend themselves. This is very similar to the mentality of the warriors in Beowulf. Beowulf comes to the aid of Hrothgars falling kingdom. Another coincidence between the two cultures that some people may see in the most recent times is the idea of the bad guy or monster. right away Americans are trying to deal with ...

Free Essays On Shakespeares Sonnet 153 :: Sonnet essays

Analysis of Sonnet 153   Cupid laid by his brand and fell asleep. A maid of Dians this advantage found, And his love-kindling fire did pronto steep In a cold valley-fountain of that ground Which borrowd from this holy fire of Love A dateless lively heat, still to endure, And grew a seething tub which men yet prove Against strange maladies a sovereign cure. But at my mistress eye Loves brand new fird, The boy for trial needs would pair my breast. I, sick withal, the help of bath desird, And thither hied, a sad distemperd guest But found no cure the bath for my help lies Where Cupid got new fire-my mistress eyes.     This and the succeeding(prenominal) sonnet both share the theme of love through Cupid. The conceit is not new, for it has been found in many poems. One example is from an epigram of Marianus Scholasticus from Henri Estiennes interpretation to which the theme is shared   Under these plane trees Eros was resting, held in gentle sleep, havi ng given his torch to the nymphs to take care of. What are we waiting for? said the nymphs to unrivaled another. If only we could quench together with this same fire in human hearts But as the torch set the water also on fire, since then the love-nymphs pur hot water into the bath.   Speculation remains as to whether Shakespeare is the author of these two sonnets, just now it has never been proven successfully. The source for these sonnets, whoever the autheor, still remains unknown, but I suppose the scholars who diespel Shakespeares authorship do so on the grounds of it being fairly simple in context, that is, there is not too oftentimes ambiguity. Due to the simplicity, I will do a brief paraphrase of the three quatrains and the couplet. 1st Cupid falls asleep and one of Dianes maids (known for her chastity) tried to extinquish Cupids fire in a pool of water 2nd The maid borrowed an endless, lusty fire, which still goes on to this day, and provided to her dismay a bath of healing properties 3rd (Cupid) would curiously touch my heart (leading me to redact towards lust), unless I am in the sight of my lover, because of the Loves brand being newly fired started.